Christian Biography: Scientists and Science Philosophers
Posted: Thu Jun 17, 2010 2:17 pm
To start off this sticky thread, I'll provide a summary of Alvin J. Schmidt's chapter, "Science: Its Christian Connections," that is in How Christianity Changed the World (Zondervan 2001, pp 218-247). Feel free to add posts concerning this subject, and any Christian scientists you'd like, breathing or not.
Introduction.
Science was a development from the mindset of medieval theology, and monks were the ancestors to scientists (cites AN Whitehead, L White, and E Mach). However, with the growth of secularism, and the publication of A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (AD White, 1896), educators have accepted the idea that Christianity and science are enemies. This view has been taught for so long that it's hard for people to grasp that it may not be so.
I. “Christian Presuppositions Underlying Science”
A. Christianity teaches that there is only one God, and that He is rational. Pagan religions believe in many gods. If God is rational and created us, then perhaps we can study creation as rational beings too. Thus the empirical, inductive method began. The thinkers in the 1100s-1200s saw the bible as rational and “verifiable by experience” (he refers to Franciscan bishop and Oxford chancellor Robert Grosseteste and Franciscan monks Roger Bacon and William of Occam [or Ockham]).
B. Francis Bacon (lawyer, member of Parliament, Queen's counsel), about 300 years later, emphasized careful observation and systematic collecting and recording. He recorded his experimental results, and so he is considered the creator of scientific induction. [A good source on Bacon: Francis Bacon ]
C. Aristotelianism/deductionism. Until thinkers like Grosseteste, Occam, and the Bacons came along - for a period of about 1,500 years - the Greek method of deduction, put forth by Aristotle, was the way nature was studied. We learned of the natural world by considering it with our minds. Even after the empirical inductionists gained some ground, deduction remained the dominant learning process for some time.
D. Christianity believes not only that there is one God, but that He is separate from His creation. Pagan religions, including that of Aristotle, believed there were many gods and that nature and god/the gods were intertwined. The pantheistic conception of the planets, where it was thought that the planets had their own intelligence, was first refuted by Christian philosopher Jean Buridan in the 1300s.
E. Pantheistic elements and Aristotelian philosophy were embedded in the church too, so much so that many in the church could not see it. Roger Bacon had been imprisoned for heresy. But since God is outside of creation, and we would not be being sacrilegious by manipulating it for study, there should have been no reason within Christianity for not accepting inductive research. In pagan beliefs, to experiment on a thing might result in abusing the spirit within that thing. In the bible, however, God tells man to have dominion over the earth; it is fine to study what God had made and gave us dominion over. In pagan belief, the gods were viewed as unpredictable if not irrational. Such a world could not be studied. The rationality of God in Judeo-Christian thought, however, led to the idea that the world and all creation might have discoverable laws.
II. "Christians, the Pioneers of Science"
"'From the thirteenth century onward into the eighteenth,' says Lynn White, 'every major scientist, in effect, explained his motivations in religious terms.' [Dynamo and Virgin Reconsidered: Essays in the Dynamism of Western Culture, MIT Press, 1968] But if one looks at current textbooks in science, one would never know this was true. Today virtually all references to the Christian beliefs of the early scientists is omitted. This is especially unfortunate because these convictions often played a dominant role in their scientific work" (p 222).
A. Occam's Razor. Named after William Occam (1280-1349), the principle states that "what can be done or explained with the fewest assumptions should be used, meaning that scientists need to 'shave off' all excess assumptions" (p 222). Scientists still use this today. Occam wrote theological works, and these greatly influenced Martin Luther.
B. Human Physiology and Biology.
1) Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). Commonly known as a great painter, he was a "scientific genius" as well. He found much wrong with the prevailing knowledge of the human body by dissecting cadavers, which was basically forbidden. His meticulous drawings and notes represent a full course on human anatomy. Through his inductive study, he found that air does not get passed directly to the heart from the lungs, as had been imagined.
2) Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564). Known as the father of human anatomy, he published his Fabric of the Human Body in 1543. He found over 200 errors in the physiological writings still being used (written by the Greek, Galen, 130-200).
3) Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884?). Augustinian monk who wrote his findings of cross-pollinating peas, which led to the concept of genes. Whether it was due to his Christian convictions, or for other reasons, Mendel studied Darwin's theory of evolution and rejected it.
C. Astronomy. The four giants of astronomy listed below were all devout Christians.
1) Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543). Received a doctorate in Canon Law (he became a "canon" in a Prussian cathedral) and was trained as a physician. Copernicus is most known for proving that the earth revolved around the sun and not vice versa. This is the heliostatic theory; he was not to think of it, but Copernicus was the one to prove it. He wrote Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Bodies (1543). He was encouraged by his Lutheran friends to publish his work, and Lutherans helped pay for this and oversaw the printing. Martin Luther's often cited insult of Copernicus is from a very unreliable source [see the book for details].
2) Tycho Brahe (1546-1601). Often cited as important to the field of astronomy. Published Concerning the New Star (1572), amongst other things.
3) Johannes Kepler (1571-1630). IMHO, Kepler was an amazing man. Through an extreme amount of difficulties, he became one of he most well-known scientists of all time. Kepler modified and corrected aspects of Copernicus' heliostatic theory and made it the heliocentric system. He found that the planets orbit elliptically, not in perfect circles, or at uniform speed. Related to his findings about the planets, his discoveries were the first natural laws of science. He published many works, his most well-known being The New Astronomy. He was the first person to show that the moon caused the tides. Isaac Newton used an insight of his to formulate the Law of Gravity. An optical law he developed was confirmed three centuries later. Kepler discovered that our calendar was incorrect because Christ's birth year was originally miscalculated (Christ's birth was between 4 and 5 BC). All this and more he did with personal emotional suffering, financial suffering, and many serious health issues, including defective eyesight and crippled hands. He was a very devout Christian.
4) Galileo (1564-1642). The first to use the telescope to study the heavens (he did not invent the telescope, however). Found that the moon did not transmit its own light and that it had valleys and mountains, that Jupiter had four moons, that the sun had spots, and that millions of stars made up the Milky Way. [Can you imagine seeing all that the first time?] He published A Dialogue on the Two Principal Systems of the World (1632) and Dialogues on the Two New Sciences (1636).
D. Physics (Those not summarized here: Gottfried Leibniz, 1646-1716; Alessandro Volta, 1745-1827; Georg Simon Ohm, 1787-1854; and, Andre Ampere, 1775-1836).
1) Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Discovered the laws of gravity and wrote one of the most important scientific works of all time, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. He was a strong Christian, evidenced by his writings, despite what some critics have stated.
2) Blaise Pascal (1623-1662). Pascal's law states "that liquid in a container exerts equal pressures in all directions" (p 233), and developed the theory about measuring barometric pressure at varying altitudes. He invented or constructed a number of things: the syringe, hydraulic press, the first adding machine, and Pascal's triangle. He made strong defenses for the Christian faith.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867). A "fundamentalist Christian" who discovered electromagnetic induction. He was the first to achieve making a liquid from gas, and he invented the generator. In 1868 the French Academy of Science said that he was the greatest of scientists amongst its members.
William Thompson Kelvin (1824-1907). He once said that "If you think strongly enough, you will be forced by science to the belief in God." [The brilliant philosopher Simone Weil said something of the same thing, only she used the word "truth" instead of "science."] Kelvin was a physicist who established the absolute zero scale (which bears his name today), who "first conceptualized energy," and who founded thermodynamics.
E. Chemistry. (Not summarized here is Antoine Lavoisier, 1743-1794 and Joseph Priestly, 1733-1804.)
1) Robert Boyle (1627-1691). Called "the father of chemistry" and was the founder of the Royal Society. Very devout and evangelical christian.
2) John Dalton I1766-1844). Quaker, "father of atomic theory," and co-founder of the British Association of Advancement of Science.
3) George Washington Carver (1864?-1943). Child of slaves and humble Christian who attributed his success to God. American chemist who developed hundreds of by-products from peanuts and sweet potatoes. The Roosevelt Medal he was honored with in 1939 declared, "To a scientist humbly seeking the guidance of God . . . ." [Things have certainly changed since 1939!)
F. Medicine. (Not summarized here are William Harvey, 1578-1657); James Simpson, 1811-1870; and, Joseph Lister, 1827-1912.)
1) Paracelsus (1493-1541). Introduced the beginning of germ theory, at a time when physicians still believed disease was caused by imbalances of internal body humors. God and saints were believed to inflict diseases, but Paracelsus thought this was "nonsensical gossip."
2) Ambroise Pare (1509?-1590). Pare was the first physician to use ligatures to stop bleeding, the practice of today, instead of cauterizing the wound. He developed artificial eyes, implanted teeth, and improved artificial arms and legs. He appears to be the first physician to use the scientific method, and attributed healing to God.
3) Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). Pasteurization is named after Louis, the method he developed. He discovered bacteria and how it not only spoiled food but caused infections. He also developed the use of antiseptic. Because of all this research into bacteria, he was able to show that spontaneous generation was false, and that biogenesis was true (life can only come from life).
III. Conclusion (this is the end paragraph of Schmidt's conclusion).
"Yet, in spite of Christianity's having provided the fertile stimulus for the development of science, students in the Western world--whether in the elementary, secondary, or university classrooms--are regularly deprived by instructors and textbooks from learning and knowing about Christianity's connection to science. The tendency to omit this connection, whether in education or in the public square, began in the eighteenth century, when, as Jacques Barzun has noted, 'the marriage of science with philosophical materialism' occurred. In time this great omission became institutionalized, and thus today's students--and the public--are unaware that virtually all scientists from the Middle Ages to the mid-eighteenth century--many of whom were seminal thinkers--not only were sincere Christians but were often inspired by biblical postulates and premises in their theories that sought to explain and predict natural phenomena. These pioneering scientists, upon whose shoulders present-day scientists stand, knew and believed the words of the biblical writer: 'The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of his hands' (Psalm 19:1). To them, God could not be factored out. And concerning their Christian faith, they echoed the words of Kepler: 'I am in earnest about Faith, and I do not play with it.' They were 180 degrees removed from the relativistic cliche of today's post-modernism that says, 'What is true for you is not true for me.' To them, truth was one, and God was its Author."
Please see the Evidence for God from Science main page for this article: Famous Scientists Who Believed in God
Introduction.
Science was a development from the mindset of medieval theology, and monks were the ancestors to scientists (cites AN Whitehead, L White, and E Mach). However, with the growth of secularism, and the publication of A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (AD White, 1896), educators have accepted the idea that Christianity and science are enemies. This view has been taught for so long that it's hard for people to grasp that it may not be so.
I. “Christian Presuppositions Underlying Science”
A. Christianity teaches that there is only one God, and that He is rational. Pagan religions believe in many gods. If God is rational and created us, then perhaps we can study creation as rational beings too. Thus the empirical, inductive method began. The thinkers in the 1100s-1200s saw the bible as rational and “verifiable by experience” (he refers to Franciscan bishop and Oxford chancellor Robert Grosseteste and Franciscan monks Roger Bacon and William of Occam [or Ockham]).
B. Francis Bacon (lawyer, member of Parliament, Queen's counsel), about 300 years later, emphasized careful observation and systematic collecting and recording. He recorded his experimental results, and so he is considered the creator of scientific induction. [A good source on Bacon: Francis Bacon ]
C. Aristotelianism/deductionism. Until thinkers like Grosseteste, Occam, and the Bacons came along - for a period of about 1,500 years - the Greek method of deduction, put forth by Aristotle, was the way nature was studied. We learned of the natural world by considering it with our minds. Even after the empirical inductionists gained some ground, deduction remained the dominant learning process for some time.
D. Christianity believes not only that there is one God, but that He is separate from His creation. Pagan religions, including that of Aristotle, believed there were many gods and that nature and god/the gods were intertwined. The pantheistic conception of the planets, where it was thought that the planets had their own intelligence, was first refuted by Christian philosopher Jean Buridan in the 1300s.
E. Pantheistic elements and Aristotelian philosophy were embedded in the church too, so much so that many in the church could not see it. Roger Bacon had been imprisoned for heresy. But since God is outside of creation, and we would not be being sacrilegious by manipulating it for study, there should have been no reason within Christianity for not accepting inductive research. In pagan beliefs, to experiment on a thing might result in abusing the spirit within that thing. In the bible, however, God tells man to have dominion over the earth; it is fine to study what God had made and gave us dominion over. In pagan belief, the gods were viewed as unpredictable if not irrational. Such a world could not be studied. The rationality of God in Judeo-Christian thought, however, led to the idea that the world and all creation might have discoverable laws.
II. "Christians, the Pioneers of Science"
"'From the thirteenth century onward into the eighteenth,' says Lynn White, 'every major scientist, in effect, explained his motivations in religious terms.' [Dynamo and Virgin Reconsidered: Essays in the Dynamism of Western Culture, MIT Press, 1968] But if one looks at current textbooks in science, one would never know this was true. Today virtually all references to the Christian beliefs of the early scientists is omitted. This is especially unfortunate because these convictions often played a dominant role in their scientific work" (p 222).
A. Occam's Razor. Named after William Occam (1280-1349), the principle states that "what can be done or explained with the fewest assumptions should be used, meaning that scientists need to 'shave off' all excess assumptions" (p 222). Scientists still use this today. Occam wrote theological works, and these greatly influenced Martin Luther.
B. Human Physiology and Biology.
1) Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). Commonly known as a great painter, he was a "scientific genius" as well. He found much wrong with the prevailing knowledge of the human body by dissecting cadavers, which was basically forbidden. His meticulous drawings and notes represent a full course on human anatomy. Through his inductive study, he found that air does not get passed directly to the heart from the lungs, as had been imagined.
2) Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564). Known as the father of human anatomy, he published his Fabric of the Human Body in 1543. He found over 200 errors in the physiological writings still being used (written by the Greek, Galen, 130-200).
3) Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884?). Augustinian monk who wrote his findings of cross-pollinating peas, which led to the concept of genes. Whether it was due to his Christian convictions, or for other reasons, Mendel studied Darwin's theory of evolution and rejected it.
C. Astronomy. The four giants of astronomy listed below were all devout Christians.
1) Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543). Received a doctorate in Canon Law (he became a "canon" in a Prussian cathedral) and was trained as a physician. Copernicus is most known for proving that the earth revolved around the sun and not vice versa. This is the heliostatic theory; he was not to think of it, but Copernicus was the one to prove it. He wrote Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Bodies (1543). He was encouraged by his Lutheran friends to publish his work, and Lutherans helped pay for this and oversaw the printing. Martin Luther's often cited insult of Copernicus is from a very unreliable source [see the book for details].
2) Tycho Brahe (1546-1601). Often cited as important to the field of astronomy. Published Concerning the New Star (1572), amongst other things.
3) Johannes Kepler (1571-1630). IMHO, Kepler was an amazing man. Through an extreme amount of difficulties, he became one of he most well-known scientists of all time. Kepler modified and corrected aspects of Copernicus' heliostatic theory and made it the heliocentric system. He found that the planets orbit elliptically, not in perfect circles, or at uniform speed. Related to his findings about the planets, his discoveries were the first natural laws of science. He published many works, his most well-known being The New Astronomy. He was the first person to show that the moon caused the tides. Isaac Newton used an insight of his to formulate the Law of Gravity. An optical law he developed was confirmed three centuries later. Kepler discovered that our calendar was incorrect because Christ's birth year was originally miscalculated (Christ's birth was between 4 and 5 BC). All this and more he did with personal emotional suffering, financial suffering, and many serious health issues, including defective eyesight and crippled hands. He was a very devout Christian.
4) Galileo (1564-1642). The first to use the telescope to study the heavens (he did not invent the telescope, however). Found that the moon did not transmit its own light and that it had valleys and mountains, that Jupiter had four moons, that the sun had spots, and that millions of stars made up the Milky Way. [Can you imagine seeing all that the first time?] He published A Dialogue on the Two Principal Systems of the World (1632) and Dialogues on the Two New Sciences (1636).
D. Physics (Those not summarized here: Gottfried Leibniz, 1646-1716; Alessandro Volta, 1745-1827; Georg Simon Ohm, 1787-1854; and, Andre Ampere, 1775-1836).
1) Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Discovered the laws of gravity and wrote one of the most important scientific works of all time, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. He was a strong Christian, evidenced by his writings, despite what some critics have stated.
2) Blaise Pascal (1623-1662). Pascal's law states "that liquid in a container exerts equal pressures in all directions" (p 233), and developed the theory about measuring barometric pressure at varying altitudes. He invented or constructed a number of things: the syringe, hydraulic press, the first adding machine, and Pascal's triangle. He made strong defenses for the Christian faith.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867). A "fundamentalist Christian" who discovered electromagnetic induction. He was the first to achieve making a liquid from gas, and he invented the generator. In 1868 the French Academy of Science said that he was the greatest of scientists amongst its members.
William Thompson Kelvin (1824-1907). He once said that "If you think strongly enough, you will be forced by science to the belief in God." [The brilliant philosopher Simone Weil said something of the same thing, only she used the word "truth" instead of "science."] Kelvin was a physicist who established the absolute zero scale (which bears his name today), who "first conceptualized energy," and who founded thermodynamics.
E. Chemistry. (Not summarized here is Antoine Lavoisier, 1743-1794 and Joseph Priestly, 1733-1804.)
1) Robert Boyle (1627-1691). Called "the father of chemistry" and was the founder of the Royal Society. Very devout and evangelical christian.
2) John Dalton I1766-1844). Quaker, "father of atomic theory," and co-founder of the British Association of Advancement of Science.
3) George Washington Carver (1864?-1943). Child of slaves and humble Christian who attributed his success to God. American chemist who developed hundreds of by-products from peanuts and sweet potatoes. The Roosevelt Medal he was honored with in 1939 declared, "To a scientist humbly seeking the guidance of God . . . ." [Things have certainly changed since 1939!)
F. Medicine. (Not summarized here are William Harvey, 1578-1657); James Simpson, 1811-1870; and, Joseph Lister, 1827-1912.)
1) Paracelsus (1493-1541). Introduced the beginning of germ theory, at a time when physicians still believed disease was caused by imbalances of internal body humors. God and saints were believed to inflict diseases, but Paracelsus thought this was "nonsensical gossip."
2) Ambroise Pare (1509?-1590). Pare was the first physician to use ligatures to stop bleeding, the practice of today, instead of cauterizing the wound. He developed artificial eyes, implanted teeth, and improved artificial arms and legs. He appears to be the first physician to use the scientific method, and attributed healing to God.
3) Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). Pasteurization is named after Louis, the method he developed. He discovered bacteria and how it not only spoiled food but caused infections. He also developed the use of antiseptic. Because of all this research into bacteria, he was able to show that spontaneous generation was false, and that biogenesis was true (life can only come from life).
III. Conclusion (this is the end paragraph of Schmidt's conclusion).
"Yet, in spite of Christianity's having provided the fertile stimulus for the development of science, students in the Western world--whether in the elementary, secondary, or university classrooms--are regularly deprived by instructors and textbooks from learning and knowing about Christianity's connection to science. The tendency to omit this connection, whether in education or in the public square, began in the eighteenth century, when, as Jacques Barzun has noted, 'the marriage of science with philosophical materialism' occurred. In time this great omission became institutionalized, and thus today's students--and the public--are unaware that virtually all scientists from the Middle Ages to the mid-eighteenth century--many of whom were seminal thinkers--not only were sincere Christians but were often inspired by biblical postulates and premises in their theories that sought to explain and predict natural phenomena. These pioneering scientists, upon whose shoulders present-day scientists stand, knew and believed the words of the biblical writer: 'The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of his hands' (Psalm 19:1). To them, God could not be factored out. And concerning their Christian faith, they echoed the words of Kepler: 'I am in earnest about Faith, and I do not play with it.' They were 180 degrees removed from the relativistic cliche of today's post-modernism that says, 'What is true for you is not true for me.' To them, truth was one, and God was its Author."
Please see the Evidence for God from Science main page for this article: Famous Scientists Who Believed in God